A Review of Bookkeeping and Accounting in 1945

A 1945 Vocational Guidance Film on Bookkeeping and Accounting is available for viewing online at the SEC Historical Society website. This entertaining 10-minute video was provided by courtesy of the Prelinger Archives, United States Library of Congress. It discusses a variety of matters including the household budget book, business bookkeeping, the role of the bookkeeper compared to that of the accountant, an accounting department, calculating and bookkeeping machines, cost accounting, special investigations, preparing tax returns and business principles. It also distinguishes a private accountant from a public accountant (such as a CPA) who should have a pleasing personality, a strong moral character and legible handwriting.

 

A brief history of the ACCA

The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) is the global body for professional accountants with 147,000 members and 424,000 students in over 170 countries. It also has a network of 83 offices and centres across the world.

In 1904, eight people formed the London Association of Accountants. Their aim was to provide more open access to the accountancy profession than the two existing accountancy organizations. ACCA went through a number of mergers and amalgamations over the years. In 1984, it became the Chartered Association of Certified Accountants to reflect the fact that it had been granted a Royal Charter of Incorporation. In 1996, it began to use the current name, the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants.

For a brief history of the ACCA from 1904 to the present time, refer to the ACCA website section on "Our History."

The Official Duties of Chartered Accountants - 1891

A lecture called “The Official Duties of Chartered Accountants” was read before the Manchester Chartered Accountants' Students' Society on May 4, 1891. According to that lecture, the duties of a Chartered Accountant may be divided into three classes: Private, Public, and Official.

“By private duties I mean such as are due by a Chartered Accountant to his client when he is instructed to perform an audit or an investigation on behalf of a private association, a firm, or on behalf of individuals, either in their business or private capacity. His duty is then strictly confined to carrying out the instructions of his clients to the best of his professional skill and ability; when he has performed these his responsibilities are at an end.”

“The public duties of a Chartered Accountant have reference to those cases where he acts on behalf of persons who give him general but not definite instructions, and who leave him to carry them out according to his own ideas, in the full belief that he will do his duty in the interest of all concerned, and hold him responsible for so acting. These duties are such as are undertaken by accepting the appointment of Auditor of a public company, of voluntary Liquidator of a company, of Auditor of the accounts of a deceased person's estate on behalf of those interested, either in the division of the estate or in the income derived from investment of the same, and of an Arbitrator, while the official duties are those appertaining to offices or appointments held under the Courts of Justice, whether of the Chancery Division or the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice, or under the County Courts, and under the Board of Trade.”

“It is with the last class of duties that my lecture is concerned. The appointments under the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice are those of Receiver, Receiver and Manager, Provisional Liquidator, Voluntary Liquidator under supervision of the Court, and Liquidator; the appointment under the control of the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice is that of Trustee in Bankruptcy. Under the Board of Trade, a Chartered Accountant may receive the special appointment as a skilled Accountant to assist a debtor against whom a Receiving Order under the Bankruptcy Act of 1883 has been made, in the preparation of his statement of affairs, and also to assist the directors or other officials of a company, after an order for winding it up has been made by the Court, in the preparation of a statement of affairs. He may also be appointed the Special Manager of the business of a debtor from the date of the Receiving Order until the appointment of, or rather certification of, a Trustee, or the approval of a scheme, and also the Special Manager of a company after a Winding-up Order has been made by the Court.”

(The full lecture about “The Official Duties of Chartered Accountants - 1891” is available online at Google Docs.)

Meeting the Challenge of Change – Report of the CICA Long-Range Strategic Planning Committee (1986)

A 1986 report by the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA) states (on page 5): “The Canadian CA profession - like the accounting profession worldwide - is facing fundamental and pervasive change. Led primarily by the rapidly evolving information technology that is revolutionizing business operations, but due also to altered perceptions about the value of the traditional attest audit, the role of chartered accountants in society - whatever their area of practice - is changing dramatically. CAs in public practice face new and increasing demands from their clients for services extending beyond those related to historical financial information and income tax advice and toward future-oriented information necessary for economic decision making. In the process, the CAs role is expanding from that of reporter and analyst of past events to communicator and adviser about business information affecting the future.”

The report further states: “CAs outside public practice - those in industry and government, for example - are no less subject to these demands, albeit from their employers. And CAs in education must face the challenging task of educating the profession's future members to meet this challenge. In an effort to manage change and provide strategic directions for our profession, the CICA Board of Governors formed the Long-Range Strategic Planning Committee in February 1984. Over the past two years, our assessment of these changes, via member and user surveys, focus groups, committee research, literature review and presentations at CICA and provincial institute conferences, has led us to develop an exciting vision of what the CA profession might become over the next 10 to 20 years. It is a vision of a more broadly-based profession whose highly-skilled members are the recognized experts in meeting the needs of an information society.”

The Committee’s conclusions are summarized in a mission statement and 14 specific strategic proposals. These proposals and the overall strategic direction are interrelated and should be looked on as a total concept. To learn more, read Meeting the Challenge of Change – Report of the CICA Long-Range Strategic Planning Committee (1986). Because of its multi-coloured front cover, it is commonly referred to as the “Rainbow Report.”

Strategic Crossroads for the CA Profession

The Report of the Task Force on Strategic Planning was completed in July 2004 and subsequently endorsed by each of the governing bodies of the Canadian CA profession. The Message from the Chair provides a perspective on the strategic planning process. It notes: “By early 2003, the profession’s last major “vision” project from the mid-1990s required a rethink, given the many shifts in our environment over the last decade. The Task Force on Strategic Planning was established in the summer of 2003. Member and market input and analysis occupied the initial period of the Task Force’s work.”

“This report can only capture a portion of the very valuable intelligence and ideas we garnered from this activity but we are satisfied that our recommendations are based on solid evidence and sound analysis. Past strategic planning by our profession was our starting place for this exercise. We found the underlying planning to be very strong but did observe problems with execution, given our complex decision-making framework and diverse priorities of the provincial Institutes/Ordre. We are confident this has been overcome by the strong support and cooperation among the senior management group, the Council of Senior Executives (CSE), regarding our work. We recommended a new vision “trusted, internationally recognized financial leaders in senior management, advisory, tax and assurance roles.” ...CAs enjoy a very strong starting position in achieving this vision but bold action is required in four areas — branding, education, member relations and the public trust.”

(Read the CICA report Strategic Crossroads for the CA Profession and the related Appendices, published in October 2004.)

Historical Notes on the Accounting Hall of Fame

Election to the Accounting Hall of Fame is perhaps the only longstanding national award for accountants -- and probably the only international one as well -- in which both academic and practicing accountants vie for the same award. The Accounting Hall of Fame was established at The Ohio State University in 1950 for the purpose of honoring accountants who have made or are making significant contributions to the advancement of accounting since the beginning of the twentieth century. Through 2008, 85 leading accountants from the United States and other countries have been elected to the Hall of Fame.

While selection to the Hall of Fame is intended to honor the people so chosen, it is also intended to be a recognition of distinguished service contributions to the progress of accounting in any of its various fields. Evidence of such service includes contributions to accounting research and literature, significant service to professional accounting organizations, wide recognition as an authority in some field of accounting, advancement of accounting education, and public service. A member must have reached a position of eminence from which the nature of his or her contributions may be judged.

Evolution of US Generally Accepted Accounting Principles - 1930 to 2004

The accounting history paper Evolution of US Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) was prepared by Stephen A. Zeff, Rice University. The paper outlines noteworthy developments in US GAAP from 1930 to 2004. The focus is deliberately on those incidents that represented important changes in practice or in the way that accounting principles or standards were set. These incidents are typically ones for which interesting ‘stories’ can be told about the underlying factors that led to the developments. Many of these stories involve efforts by the preparers of financial statements, or by a branch of government, to engage in ‘political’ lobbying in order to promote their narrow interests; for example, to present a more favourable earnings picture or to promote the effectiveness of government fiscal policy. Yet many US accounting standards have been issued that truly reflect the application of sound concepts, undiluted by ‘political’ lobbying. Because these principled standards have emerged in a natural progression from the underlying concepts, their stories are not as ‘interesting’ as those that were driven by ‘political’ lobbying. (Stephen A. Zeff was inducted into the Accounting Hall of Fame in 2002.)

Remembering Ross Skinner (1923-2003)

Saskatoon-born Ross MacGregor Skinner, FCA, had a significant impact on Canadian accounting standards. His 31-year Clarkson Gordon career began in 1945. A partner by 1954, he became national accounting standards director in 1962.

Among his numerous committee posts at the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA) were 5 years of service on its Committee on Accounting and Auditing Research (1959-64), including a term as its chair, and 5 years on its Standards Advisory Board (1990-95). He chaired the Auditor General­’s Independent Committee on Government Accounting and Auditing (1975-78) and, in the same period, was influential in the CICA’s decision to form its Public Sector Accounting Board.

He served two five-year terms on the Financial Disclosure Advisory Board of the Ontario Securities Commission (1974-79 and 1990-95) including three years as its chair. He was a consultant to the Commission to Study the Public's Expectations of Audits (the Macdonald Commission, 1987-88) and, working closely with the Commission, was the principal author of its report. He also served as a vice-president of the American Accounting Association, on the Board of Governors of Havergal College (Toronto), and on the editorial boards of Contemporary Accounting Research, Accounting Horizons, and the Accounting Historians Journal.

In 1962, he was elected a Fellow of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Ontario (FCA) and, in 1984, he was one of the first five recipients of the Institute’s Award of Outstanding Merit. His many honours and awards also include an honourary doctorate of laws from Brock University, the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants’ Distinguished Service Award, and the Canadian Academic Accounting Association’s Haim Falk Award for Distinguished Contribution to Accounting Thought.

Apart from his work on committees of professional bodies and institutes, he wrote several influential books. His first, Analytical Auditing, co-authored with R.J. Anderson, was translated into four languages. His most well-known work, Accounting Principles: A Canadian Viewpoint is highly regarded in the accounting world, as is the book Accounting Standards in Evolution, co-authored with J. Alex Milburn.

Ross Skinner retired in 1983. In 1987 he joined the University of Toronto as adjunct professor and director of its Centre for Accounting Studies, positions he held until 1990. In 1999, he received an honourary Doctor of Laws from Brock University. In 2000, he was inducted to the Accounting Hall of Fame (refer to the article “A Rare Induction to Fame” in CAmagazine online). He passed away in 2003.

Welcome to the AAA Digital Library!

The mission of the American Accounting Association (AAA) is to promote worldwide excellence in accounting education, research and practice. Founded in 1916 as the American Association of University Instructors in Accounting, its present name was adopted in 1936. The Association is a voluntary organization of persons interested in accounting education and research. The AAA Digital Library includes the following publications: The Accounting Review; Issues in Accounting Education; Accounting Horizons; Accounting and the Public Interest; The ATA Journal of Legal Tax Research; AUDITING: A Journal of Practice & Theory; Behavioral Research in Accounting; Current Issues in Auditing; Journal of Emerging Technologies in Accounting; Journal of Information Systems; Journal of International Accounting Research; Journal of Management Accounting Research; and Journal of the American Taxation Association. All full-text papers are provided in PDF format and are searchable using the Find utility in Adobe Acrobat Reader. All full-text papers provide links to references, as available. The AAA Newsletter, Accounting Education News, as well as the AAA Section Newsletters are also available online, some dating back to 1995.

The sixth Accounting History International Conference, Wellington, New Zealand

"The Accounting History International Conference (6AHIC) series provides for conferences being held every three years. Apart from serving as an important feeder of papers to Accounting History, the conference is symbolic of the international focus of the journal. Following successful and enjoyable conferences in Melbourne, Osaka, Siena, Braga, and Banff, we are pleased to welcome delegates and their families to the sixth Accounting History International Conference in Wellington, New Zealand. The School of Accounting and Commercial Law, Victoria University of Wellington in conjunction with the Accounting History Special Interest Group of Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand invites you to join us 18-20 August 2010."

ICAS - more than 30 years of dedicated research

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS) is the world’s first professional body of accountants, receiving its Royal Charter in 1854. It was the first to adopt the designation “Chartered Accountant” and the letters CA. The ICAS is committed to supporting and encouraging high quality research that is timely, relevant and useful to the accounting profession in an international or UK perspective. Research is funded by The Scottish Accountancy Trust for Education and Research (SATER), which focuses on research that is relevant to the public interest and the accountancy profession or business. To encourage dissemination of research findings, a Publications Catalogue and the majority of Research Publications (containing research dating back to 1982) are available to download free-of-charge from the ICAS website. To be notified of new research publications, interested parties can subscribe to an e-news service by e-mail (research@icas.org.uk).

Naming and Branding: Accountants and Accountancy Bodies in the British Empire and Commonwealth 1853-2003

The number of professional accountancy bodies and accountants within the British Empire and Commonwealth has greatly expanded within the last 150 years. The names of these bodies have followed a formula pioneered in Britain in the 19th century and certain designations, notably "chartered accountant" have evolved as brand names. Access to and use of these brands has spread not with colonization but with decolonization of the settler colonies and then the nonsettler colonies. This reserach paper charts these developments, noting the apparent paradoxes of the proliferation of royal charters in an increasingly non-monarchical UK, charters in republics, and how each country’s experience has been different. It concludes with a look at branded accountants in a global economy. Read the preliminary draft paper “Naming and Branding: Accountants and Accountancy Bodies in the British Empire and Commonwealth 1853-2003” by R.H.Parker, University of Exeter, UK. (References to developments in Canada are on pages 12-14)

Archive-It web archiving and preservation

Archive-It, a web archiving and preservation service, allows institutions to build and preserve collections of digital content. It is used by a number of Canadian universities, such as the University of Toronto and the University of Waterloo. Through a user-friendly web application, Archive-It partners can harvest, catalog, manage and browse their archived collections. Collections are hosted at the Internet Archive data center and are accessible to the public with full-text search.

International Convergence of Accounting Standards—A Brief History

International convergence of accounting standards is not a new idea. The concept of convergence first arose in the late 1950s in response to post World War II economic integration and related increases in cross-border capital flows. Initial efforts focused on harmonization—reducing differences among the accounting principles used in the world’s major capital markets. By the 1990s, the idea of harmonizing accounting standards was replaced by the concept of convergence—the development of a single set of high-quality, international accounting standards that would be used in at least all major capital markets. (Refer to the FASB website for a chronology of some of the key events in the evolution of the international convergence of accounting standards.)